Without proper gas detection, hazardous atmospheres may significantly affect the health of an entry team. Many airborne contaminants cannot be detected by smell or vision and can only be measured with special equipment. Data gathered in the late seventies and early eighties indicated that 65% of all those who died in confined spaces were unaware that the space they were entering was a potential hazard. Over 50% of confined space deaths occur to the rescuers and over one third of the fatalities occurred after the space was tested and declared safe and the gas detector was removed.

Depending on its sensor configuration, proper gas detection equipment can help identify the hazard and protect your workers.

Selecting a gas detector should be based on the hazard faced. Unfortunately far too many purchasers make one of the largest and most crucial single equipment expenditures without really understanding what they are buying. Sensors and their capabilities are the single most important factor when choosing a gas detector, yet more often than not, decisions are based on size, price, bells and whistles and other such features that have nothing to do with the instrument’s detecting abilities.

There are two categories of gas detection instruments: indirect reading and direct reading. With indirect reading instruments, samples must be sent to the laboratory for analysis: direct reading instruments provide their information at the time of sampling. Since the primary objective of gas detection in confined space operations is to immediately warn the entry team of adverse atmospheric changes, direct reading instruments are the only safe source of sampling information. There are a number of direct reading portable gas detectors on the market today.

Gas detectors come in a variety of sizes, shapes, colours and sensor configurations. For confined space work, it is necessary to monitor for oxygen deficiency/enrichment, combustible gases and toxics. Therefore an instrument capable of dealing with these three issues is necessary.

Gas detection manufacturers produce instruments with a variety of sensor configurations. One should be fully aware of the different sensor types and the capabilities of each before purchase. Just because catalogues or advertisements say that their instrument covers these three main parameters doesn’t mean that it will provide entry teams with the required protection. Never assume that instruments will work for specific applications without applying two important criteria:

1. You must know what to expect to find in your particular space.
2. You must ensure that the instrument you are going to purchase/use is capable of detecting these hazards.

These sensors look for explosive atmospheres. They detect combustible gases by causing an actual combustion of gases within the sensor chamber. (Figure 1). A catalytic sensor consists of a flame arresting material, encasing two chambers each which contains a coiled wire filament. One chamber is designed to allow air to enter it, and its coil is coated with platinum or palladium. The other chamber is sealed to prevent air from entering and the coil is not coated. Both coils are heated (to temperatures of 500 degrees F or higher). When combustible gases are exposed to the coil they will ignite and raise the temperature of the bead even

higher. The temperature increase and the change of the coil’s electrical resistance is displayed as "percent LEL".

These sensors offer good linearity, and can react to most combustible gases. However, as resistance change per cent LEL is quite small, they work better in concentrations between 1,000 and 50,000 PPM. They do not measure trace amounts of gas (under 200 PPM) and therefore are of no use in determining toxic levels. The disadvantages are:

• they must have a minimum of 16% oxygen content in the air to work accurately
• the sensor can be damaged by lead or silicone
• the readings can be affected by humidity and water vapour condensation
• they respond poorly to low energy hydrocarbons such as oil vapours
• they tend to loose their linearity after a year or so
• they are not recommended for use in an acetylene atmosphere

The flame arrestor will prevent ignition of most gases except acetylene outside the sensor. It is extremely important to check the approvals for which type of hazardous locations the detector can function in.

2. Metallic Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Combustible Gas Sensor

MOS or "Solid State" Combustible Gas Sensors consist of a housing (either a stainless steel sintered cup or plastic) containing an electric conductor. This conductor is made up of a heating element (operating between 150 degrees F to 350 degrees F) and a bead that is proprietary mixture of metal oxides. As current travels through the bead when exposed to clean air, a base resistance is established. When a gas comes into contact with the sensor surface, a change in sensor resistance occurs. The sensor resistance can change significantly even with small quantities of gases (less than 200 ppm). This sensor has a long operation life (3 to 5 years), is very rugged and will recover better from high concentrations of a gas that could damage other types of sensors. (Figure 2)

There are also disadvantages:

• MOS sensors also require oxygen to work accurately, although not as much as the catalytic
• some sensor’s heating elements have a high demand for power which requires large battery packs
• the readings can be affected by humidity and water vapour condensation

3. Infra-Red Combustible Sensors

Recently Infra-Red Sensors have begun appearing in some instruments. They work well in low oxygen levels or acetylene atmospheres; however, they are quite expensive. These sensors work by reflecting light off a mirror and measuring the amount of light adsorbed during refraction. Infrared sensors typically require a constant flow across the sensing assembly and may be slow to clear from alarm. They are unable to detect hydrogen.

These sensors react to a specific chemical (substance). Chemically specific sensors are available for chlorine, ammonia, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, nitric oxide, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide and hydrochloric acid. The manufacturer’s technical information will indicate what sensors are available for their unit. ( Figure 3).

The electrochemical sensor housing contains two (and sometimes three) electrodes sitting in a liquid solution (either a base or alkali, depending on what the sensor is looking for). The housing is covered by a Teflon membrane that keeps the fluid in the housing yet allows air in. As air molecules enter through the thin Teflon membrane, the fluid will react with a specific substance if found. When the detector is working a small current passes between the two electrodes. Any change in the fluid’s density caused by a reaction to the substance in the air will affect the density of the fluid and change the amount of current passing between the two electrodes. The current then passes through a temperature compensating circuit. The electron flow is then read as a specific amount of the substance. The manufacturer creates a Wet Chem Sensor’s ability to detect specific types of gases based on the choice of membrane, the number of electrodes, the alloy of the electrodes, the alloy of the electrode (gold, lead, etc.) and type of electrolyte fluid.

These sensors have very good linearity which makes them very accurate for the substance they will react to. They can measure either large or small quantities and these sensors have a typical life span of approximately 1 year.

As with all sensors, Wet Chem sensors have their limitations. The fluid can freeze when left in environments having temperatures lower than 0 degrees C. They are also adversely affected by altitude. Air pressure at sea level (14.73 psi absolute) is the force required to induce the air into the sensor. As one rises in altitude, the less force is available to push the air into the sensor, thus reducing the accuracy of the reading. Some substances, (e.g. moisture) affect the sensor by changing the make up of the fluid, thus reducing the amount of electrical resistance which impacts the reading. Check the manufacturer’s instructions to see which substances will affect the sensor.

Abnormal readings are another issue with regards to Wet Chem sensors. Abnormal readings are generally readings that don’t make sense. For instance you are working in a sanitary sewer and your instrument is showing a CO reading of 300 PPM (current TWA in Ontario is 35 PPM) and a low reading (below the TWA of 10 PPM) of hydrogen sulfide. What you likely have is an interference from the hydrogen sulfide. Some electrochemical carbon monoxide sensors are subject to interference from low levels of hydrogen sulfide. The knowledge that carbon monoxide is not a common occurrence in sanitary sewer applications (whereas hydrogen sulfide is) would lead you to consider that you are probably having an interference problem.

Awareness of the hazards in your workplace, some basic understanding of chemistry, knowing what interferent gases adversely affect your unit and strict testing protocols will minimize this problem.

2. Metallic Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Toxic Broad Range Gas Sensors

There are a number of different MOS sensors on the market and one has been developed for detecting toxic gases. Its make-up and operation is similar to the one used for the detection of combustible gases. However, the MOS broad range toxic sensor is capable of reacting to a wide range of toxic gases including carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, styrene, toluene, gasoline and many other hydrocarbons and solvents. MOS sensors cannot detect carbon dioxide or sulfur dioxide. The sensor is incapable of telling you what gas you have encountered or the concentration, only that the atmosphere may be hazardous to your health.

Oxygen sensors are the only true chemically-specific sensors (Figure 4). They are similar to the electrochemical (Wet Chem) sensors described previously. They are also susceptible to freezing, are affected by altitude and have a nominal operational life of one year. Never use an oxygen sensor to detect toxic gases. It is true that a toxic gas will displace the oxygen in a confined space. However, it takes 60,000 PPM of any gas to lower the oxygen from 20.9% (normal) to 19.5% (alarm point). More importantly, 60,000 PPM of any toxic gas will kill you.

To complete this instrument we will require a toxic sensor(s). The key to safe confined space gas detection lies in these toxic sensors. There are two main sensor types: electrochemical (Wet Chem) and Broad Range (Solid State MOS).

To select the correct toxic sensor we need to evaluate our confined spaces. If your area of work is an industrial site, where the toxic gases are known or can be controlled, then a chemically specific toxic sensor can be chosen (providing a sensor exists for that gas hazard). Manufacturers produce gas detectors that are capable of supporting one or two of these chemically specific sensors. Some instruments are available with a range of plug-in sensors that can be changed in the field without fuss or calibration. Other instruments must be ordered with the specific toxic sensor(s) you require. However, there is a limit to the sensors available and, if toxic hydrocarbons or solvents are a concern, common to municipal sewers as well as industrial applications, then the broad range (MOS) type may be your best bet.

If you are in an area where the toxics are unknown or cannot be controlled, such as storm and sanitary sewers, pumping stations, waste treatment plants, industrial sites with toxic hydrocarbons and the like, then the broad range (MOS) type is your best solution. Unlike the chemically specific electrochemical sensors, these sensors cannot differentiate one toxic gas from another but they will tell you whether it is safe to enter or it is time to get out. The broad range sensors have their limitations as well and cannot detect any of the dioxides, i.e.: carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide.

It must be noted that a gas detector with a combustible sensor will not protect you from toxic levels of hydrocarbons. A classic example is gasoline. The current TWA for gasoline is 900 PPM. A combustible gas detector, calibrated to methane, will not alarm on gasoline until around 50% of the LEL or 5000 to 7000 PPM. This is well in excess of the TWA and can cause a worker to be rendered unconscious. The only toxic sensor capable of detecting these low levels of hydrocarbons are the broad range.

In confined space testing it is important that the operator know how the sensor comes in contact (operation) with the atmosphere. There are three primary means of exposing the sensor to the atmosphere-sample draw, diffusion and a detachable remote diffusion sensor assembly. There are strengths and weakness in all systems. Selection should be based upon need, not availability.

The most common form of sampling a confined space is the sample draw method. The advantage of this method is that any monitoring is performed outside the space. With a sample draw system, a pump moves the sample from the atmosphere and draws it through a hollow tube to the sensor. The pump can either be a "bulb" hand aspirator which requires squeezing or a motorized aspirator which utilizes batteries (independent of the gas detectors).

Drawing the sample to the detector protects the tester by eliminating the need to enter the space and limits any movement of the door/cover to the space that may create a spark which could ignite flammable gases that may collect around the entry point. For these reasons, the sample draw method is recommended when conducting your pre-entry test. The primary disadvantage of this method is sample dilution.

The tube leaking or using a tube over 12’ in length will reduce the concentration of the contaminant to the point where the readings presented are inaccurate. Other problems may include leaking pumps, cumbersome sample lines, and in some environments, the sample line may plug due to sludge, dirt or condensate icing.

A disadvantage of the manual sample draw methods is the effort involved moving the air sample along the tube to the sensor. A general rule of thumb is that it takes 3 pump strokes to move the sample 1 foot. If your line is 12’, it will take 36 pump strokes to get the sample to the sensor, then the sampling must continue for up to 3 minutes to ensure a proper undiluted sample. If you are using a bulb hand aspirator strong wrists are both a requirement and the end result of a lot of entries.

Most gas detector sensors operate by diffusion. Diffusion works by air being absorbed into the sensor cell. Electronic gas detectors rely heavily on diffusion sampling. The atmosphere must be brought to the gas sensors by the aforementioned sample draw (aspiration) or by lowering the gas detector into atmosphere.

Some manufacturers offer a detachable remote sensor assembly as a means of remote sampling. Advantages of this technology include the lack of pumps and moving parts, much faster response time than aspiration and wires can carry the information with no potential of diluted readings. The sample method is still diffusion but the sensors are lowered into the atmosphere to be tested. Once the atmosphere has been tested by aspiration and/or remote sensors, the gas detector can be worn by the worker for the duration.

Because each sampling method has its own strengths and weaknesses, all techniques are used to monitor the atmosphere. The sample draw is used for the pre-entry test that occurs just inside the space at the doorway. (suggestion: use a 6’ or shorter tube). Diffusion sampling occurs at all other times.

The third component to consider in gas detector selection is design characteristics. Many gas detectors are sold solely upon these characteristics. The reason for this is that many gas detector manufacturers do not make their own sensors. They design and make the electronic box of the gas detector.

The following characteristics should be considered after selecting the appropriate sensors:

• Construction
• Electronics
• Approvals
• Ease of use

1. Construction

Monitoring devices must be very rugged and easily carried by the workers. Even with training and the best intentions of the workers, field use does abuse the units. Drops, jolts, exposure to the elements, misuse, etc., all can shorten the life of the instrument. The case and its components must be constructed to withstand rough handling.

The unit’s alarm systems, which should be both audio and visual, must be loud enough to be heard in your environment by either the attendant outside the space or the entrant(s) inside. In a perfect world, both attendant and entrant would hear the alarm. Some manufacturers have remote alarms that could enable both the attendant and entrant to simultaneously hear the alarm. The option is only worth the money spent if the remote wiring is long enough for all your spaces.

Batteries are another consideration. Batteries can be either disposable or rechargeable but either type should supply enough power to last 6 to 8 hours. If the batteries cannot last the entire work period, a back up or stand by power source must be present. Batteries have all sorts of limitations. Many units have no way to determine the charge in them; cold and age decrease battery life; lead acid batteries can leak and damage your electronics; NiCad (rechargeable batteries) can develop memories and so on. Battery maintenance costs and efforts should be evaluated very carefully to ensure your system will work when required. The new nickel metal hydride rechargeable batteries appear to have cut down the memory problems found in the NiCad rechargeable batteries.

For confined space work, gas detectors need to be portable (hand held). If the unit is designed to be worn by the worker, it should rest on their belt, not weigh it down. In many tight spots, the worker should not wear the device as it may create a catch point. It may be advisable to have the ability to hang up the unit inside the space.

Switches, buttons and knobs should be positioned or designed so that they cannot be knocked out of position, but one can still operate them with gloves on. The unit should be tamper resistant and default to an alarm mode in the event of battery or sensor failure. Gauges and/or displays should be large and easily read and understood. This means you must be able to not only see the displayed data, but also understand it. In confined spaces there are all types of lighting. Does the information show in all lighting situations? And finally, do the abbreviations make sense or do you need an explanation card on the detector? If the information cannot be understood, it may not be performing the job that it is intended to do.

2. Electronics

Information provided must be reliable and useful as life and death decisions can be made based on the data provided. The electronics’ response time, accuracy, precision, radio frequency (RF) interference, reading drift and sensitivity are all factors that can differentiate a poor purchase from a good investment.

Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) protection is the unit’s ability to protect the readings from interference caused by radio waves, pulsed power lines, transformers, and generators. RF protection is expressed in immunity to x watts of radio transmission at a specific distance.

This is the time period between obtaining data from the sensors and displaying it. This time period depends on what information is collected, the sensor response, how the unit of measurement being used (e.g. % LEL or PPM). Response time can range from milliseconds to minutes.

Accuracy is the relationship between the readout and the true concentration. This relationship is indicated by an error factor (indicated by "+/-",e.g. +/- 0.5%). The lower the number, the greater the instrument’s accuracy. Precision is the number of times the accuracy would be right in any given number of tests (correct 19 times out of 20). In this case the higher the number, the greater the precision.

This is the unit’s ability to accurately measure changes in concentrations. The hazards presented by the substance being measured would determine the need for sensitivity. For instance, at present in Ontario, chlorine has a time weighted average exposure value of 1 PPM and if is IDLH at 10 PPM; therefore, any change must be noted at once. On the other hand, carbon dioxide’s TWAEV is 5000 PPM, and is IDLH at 40,000 PPM; therefore the sensitivity need not be that great.

This is the movement in the instrument’s electronic readout when the atmospheric value remains the same. Moving the instrument from one angle to another, shaking it, ambient vibrations or no apparent reason may cause the readout to change. Poor electronic circuit board design and/or age of the machine or the sensor will cause the readings to drift. Sensor or component aging causing this problem is acceptable and can be compensated for as part of the unit’s ongoing maintenance program; however, poor construction is not acceptable. Poor construction cannot be repaired and creates mistrust of the unit with those who work with it. If they do not trust the readings, they will not use it and a tragedy could easily occur. Your best protection is to contact current users of the instrument and ask about their experiences.

3. Approvals

Once a manufacturer has developed an instrument for use in a hazardous atmosphere, it should be approved by an independent laboratory for intrinsic safety. Ie: UL, CSA, MET etc.

4. Ease of Use

One of the most important considerations after sensor evaluation and selection is the ease of use of the instrument. Is it simple to operate? Is it simple to understand? Are the buttons/switches easy to use with gloves on? Do you have to use switches or buttons to get alarm information? Will it alarm when battery/sensors fail? Most importantly, is it one switch operation?

Portable gas detectors are available from a variety of manufacturers. They range from single electrochemical sensor instruments to very precise multiple sensor units. Do not be swayed by sophisticated technology and fancy packaging. Choose a device that meets your needs (both short term and for the next 3 to 5 years if possible). Look at all the variables from sensors to design, but always keep sensors as your number one criteria. Your employees also have to be considered in the equation. If not, a perfectly good gas detector will collect dust because they feel the damn thing isn’t any good! A well thought out purchase can save lives and prevent injuries.